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Communications Landscaping - North and Latin American Transnational Communities: Overview
- Final Report -
Summary /General overview of the investigation /The transnational perspective /The role of remittances in transnational communities / Considerations on communication, culture and identities for transnational communities /Communication perspective
Summary [top]
General overview of the enquiry
We found that research about transnational communities is very extensive. There is a vast conceptual development of the subject, in both the receiver and the originating cultures, but the most outstanding research focus is on emigration flows, the increase in emigration, its effects on economic aspects; on remittances and their positive or negative impact and their role in the development and well being of the originating and transnational communities. We also found that there are no substantial mass media projects on transnational communities. However, the importance and influence of these communities is beginning to be recognized: a) in the communication, telecommunication, radio and television laws drawn up by the States; b) in the internationalization, ownership structures and programming of the media; and c) within this last aspect , homogeneous genres and information; portrayals of behaviour patterns that take into account the mixtures of cultures; and references to common symbols, images, and audiovisual language. Below we present some basic foundations and concepts that served as a base for this work and the main findings on the three axial subjects mentioned above.
Click here for a complete list of the documentation consulted - Academic Literature review.
The transnational perspective [top]
There are diverse definitions of transnationalism. We took as a basis the concept of L. Bash, N. Glick Schiller and C. Blanc-Szanton [1]
"Transnationalism" defined as the processes through which immigrants force and sustain social relations of many weaves and stratifications uniting their original and host societies. We call these processes transnationalism to emphasize that immigrants today build social fields which transcend geographical, cultural and political boundaries. An essential element is the multiplicity of roles (commitments) which "transmigrants" play in both their original and receiver societies. We are still searching for an appropriate terminology to describe these "social" locations...
It is important to clarify that, although the terms Migration, Transnational Communities and Diaspora are closely linked and we use them as a category, sometimes without differentiation, they are defined in the academic literature as phases with certain conditions related to cultural processes and settlement which make them different.
Cristian Doa Reyeco [2] explains some of the factors which serve to differentiate phases, the relationships or links and some of their characteristics, affirming that relationships established by trans-migrants in both societies "are sustained by the continuous physical transfer of individuals between their areas of origin and destination; however, not all immigrants are transmigrants; only immigrants who lead a double life are transmigrants: they share two cultures, have homes in both countries and build their life by means of continuous exchanges across borders."
This author also identifies three phases or types of transnational social spaces and presents the basic elements for investigation based on communication in each of them:
Related transnational groups are the most basic forms established in the first migratory movements and are formed by family members, relatives and close friends of the same nucleus or society; easy flowing, constant communication is of great importance for these groups to keep the rules, for the continuity of remittances and for the impact of these at the domestic sphere level. This phase relates to the day to day aspect of communication.
Transnational circuits are the second phase in migratory flows, in which the community is expanding beyond kinship due to size and diverse groups with common, identifiable roots and ties: communication is necessary for the formation of social networks and their duration in time, as well as for their visibility and legitimization. This stage belongs increasingly to the public sphere, but it is also present in the discourses, symbols and representations, not only of the individual, but of the group which forms the circuit.
In the transnational communities phase, the transformation and inclusion, as well as the strengthening of cultural identities, physical settlement and shared loyalties, are not only in their comings and goings, but in "being there but living here". Here, shared identity is reinforced by mediation (mediacin), in the flow and availability of communication, in the use and facilitation of new technologies, for example on the websites of immigrants and Hometown Associations.
Information flows in all directions and, in spite of the hierarchies which define these phases, it is indispensable for transnationalization to be seen as a series of active processes in which all phases or types of transnational social spaces are somehow present, in which communication supports each of them but, at the same time, furthers transformation from groups of relatives to diasporic communities.
Alejandro Portes [3], in turn, explains that migratory movements and transnational processes do not arise as non-reflective, random actions, but rather driven by globalization and the logic of capitalism which generate the need for manual labor in the most developed countries.
The role of remittances in transnational communities [top]
Remittances have served as a platform for follow-up and analysis of transnational communities. This is undoubtedly a primordial factor because of its economic impact, at both micro or domestic and macro levels, on countries.
Manuel Orozco [4], director of Diálogo Interamericano (Inter-Amercan Dialogue) for Central America, has specialized in the study of remittances. In his study Globalization and Migration. El impacto de las remesas familiares a América Latina (Globalization and Migration. The impact of remittances to families in Latin America), Orozco studies remittances as a main objective to explain the impact of migrations on the development of countries of origin, above all analyzing their decisive nature for receiver countries, as well as the concept of "service" that results from this flow and the consequent efforts of institutions and states to introduce this into their economic and social policies. It is precisely this that underlies the phenomenon of communication among the different actors: senders and receivers of remittances; activities of services for the flow of remittances, both large and small, and the respective senders and receivers and the state and agencies involved in the countries' development policies.
Deborah Waller Meyers [5] , in her review of the studies and literature on the phenomenon of remittances and their impact on receiver communities, evidences that these generate, and in turn are generated by, the constant flow of communication, the communities' sense of belonging and the cultural and affective relations constantly sustained and reproduced through communication.
Considerations on communication, culture and identities for transnational communities [top]
Jesus Martin Barbero and Renato Ortiz analyze the displacements and the formation of the concept of identity from a perspective of: local and global ; national communities and transnationalism, continuity and rupture, circulation of people and ideas, amongst others:
Even strongest local cultures undergo changes which affect their way of experiencing belong to the territory and ways of living their identity. These are the same movements which displace the old borders between the traditional and the modern, the popular and the massive, the local and the global. Today, these changes and movements are crucial to understand how traditional, national and urban communities survive, break down and are re-created."Jesus Martin-Barbero [6]
..."the appearance of modern societies requires social relations to no longer be subjected to the local concept of interaction. Everything happens as if in previous societies space and time had been contained within physical space. Modernity breaks this continuity, transferring social relations to a broader territory. Due to the circulation of people, merchandise, symbolic references and ideas, space expands."Renato Ortiz [7]
It may be concluded from Renato Ortiz[8] and Seven Vertovec's [9] reflections that identity is no longer contained within a physical space, nor is it based exclusively on the notion of the nation-state, but is related to the way in which networks, remittances, movements and continuous contacts facilitated by telecommunication, the mass media, displacements and transportation articulate. These transnationalism processes have an impact on the self-recognition of emigrants, as well as of the originating or native communities and even on the receiver communities.
Luis E Guarnizo's [10] concept of transnational living refers to a "condition", which implies a series of transborder processes started and maintained by "migrants". This leads to a complex weave of activities, from remittances and cultural reproductions and social interactions to political participation. This is an area of dynamic interaction and constant activity involving the different actors: individuals, groups and institutions, that is, the community and the interacting communities. This concept and the transformation of societies covers some of the most expeditious and dynamic segments of telephony, air travel and the financial sector, such as international calls, ethno-tourism (return to the place of origin for periods of time) and private remittances or transfers of money.
The Communication perspective [top]
Although there are many ways of perceiving communication, we would like to consider it for this enquiry as: processes and symbolic and cultural systems, as agents in which identities are defined, in which the subject's ideology and displacement are organized and reproduced. Communication as a world of regulatory and cultural processes per se, but also of transgression and continuous arrays of meaning and mediation (mediacin)[11]. Therefore, all utterances or symbolic representations, whether mediated or not, in the building and continuous rebuilding of the ties and contacts that maintain transnational communities fall within this perspective.
The following diagram shows the importance of communication for the study and understanding of communities within transnationalization, and as a contemporary phenomenon. The different authors quoted agree that this is a defining element and that there are causal relationships between communication and the conformation of these communities. It is impossible to understand transnational communities without the perspective of communication.
The following diagram shows the importance of communications for the study and understanding of communities within transnationalization and as a contemporary phenomenon. The different authors cited agree that this is a defining element and that there are causal relationships between communications and the formation of these communities. It is impossible to understand transnational communities without the perspective of communication.
Transnational Communication Flows
Based on: Karin Weyland et al., Control Panel, Dominican Republic. Developed by the "Communication Landscaping – North and Latin American Transnational Communities" enquiry team, Colombia, 2004
1. Communications structures and context
In order to a) establish an overview of the frameworks and legal regulations relating to the infrastructure of communication and their uses; b) map the regulatory environment ; c) compile data on telephony and its scope, on the Internet, radio and television and d) understand certain economic aspects relevant to the subject, the main regulatory institutions for these services were identified, as well as the pertinent laws, decrees and plans. We also included a selection of indicators on the telecommunication sector for each focus country (Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Dominican Republic, Hait as well as Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Honduras).
Within the legal frameworks analyzed, we find a political tactic regarding the regime of competition, regulation by the market and deregulation of telecommunication and mass communication. These are all consistent with the influx of the so-called globalization and the resulting insertion of the communities or countries under study in the trends towards privatization and freedom of foreign investment. Migratory flows from small countries like El Salvador and Dominican Republic appear to have contributed in benefit of these tendencies, due to dependence and their impact on the remittances. In the case of Mexico, this influx is, to a certain extent, obvious: the traditional migration from towns and states to the USA; economic inter-dependence; the resulting consolidation of enclaves of fellow countrymen, economic integration and, why not, cultural integration among different socio-geographical points, among others.
In principle, competition and deregulation should benefit the consumer and the expansion of the market insofar as the varying quality supply and competitive prices are a condition. Telecommunication flows have increased in all countries and the cases of those mentioned above show that both supply and consumption have increased. However, according to the 'control panel's' analyses and in spite of the improvement in telephony conditions and coverage, users do not appear to be greatly satisfied and the governments' laissez faire role and the resulting ownership concentration have been questioned. The flow of telecommunication favours those originating in the USA considerably.
As to regulation of the mass media, they continue in lieu of concentration and private policies regarding the concept of the media as a primarily commercial activity, and also of the investments and program and production structure of the Mexican media. The penetration of Telemundo and Univision, both related to the large Mexican media conglomerates, is permanently increasing in all these countries. However, there has been little research and representation in the media on the issue of migration, the construction of perceived images (imaginarios) and the consolidation of broad, inclusive informative processes.
The outstanding elements in this overview on legal and normative structures are, among others.: a) the regulations and their competitive application; b) supply, service quality and tariffs; c) the complete separation between regulators and operators; d) the concept of universal service and guaranteed access; e) the concession, permits and licenses and f) in general, the autonomy of regulatory bodies and the role of the state. These aspects have strongly influenced the new proposals of modernization and insertion into the internationalization of these societies.
The new concept of telecommunication, with a new legal framework, was formally introduced in the nineties. In all the countries, without exception, the new framework stipulated, on the one hand, the creation of regulatory bodies and, on the other, telecommunication services providers. That is, state monopolies for the provision of this service came to an end ( which, in turn, had acted as regulators of their own operation) and the competitive regime was introduced, at least in principle. The regulatory bodies arose within the concept of modern states, with characteristics of autonomy and general competition, but it differed from country to country. Almost all depended on their Ministries of Communication and, in some cases, directly on the executive head of government.
Regulation as a principle was consolidated as telecommunications services operation ceased to be provided directly by states and free, fair competition and the market as a guarantee of quality, access and tariffs were promoted. All the regulatory frameworks establish this principle. However, there are considerable differences in the formulation of these frameworks and in the concept of enforcement of regulations.
In all cases, with the exception of Costa Rica, telecommunications operators were privatized, with either major or minor restrictions concerning private investment and foreign capital.
In some cases, such as Mexico and Costa Rica, tariffs were established by Government initiatives or legal provisions or by direct provision of the service.
These two countries, in addition, are different in their conception and application of guidelines for running telecommunications. The guidance and direct intervention of the Government, through three Ministries (Secretariats) in the regulations and norms for the concession, content, rights, national production, economic support and promotion, is clear in the case of Mexico. Costa Rica, for its part, grants the regulatory entity executive powers, but maintains a State monopoly of the operation and provision of the services. In both cases, the State is involved, both formally and in practice, linked to the concept of public good, according to which the service guarantor is the State itself. How effective is this? It is difficult to answer, but they are the only two countries which at least outline a political map of telecommunication in their development plans and strategies for the sector.
In the cases of El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Dominican Republic and Nicaragua, the trend is towards the establishment of minimum regulations or, at least, categorization of the service in such a way that there will be fewer and fewer requirements and finally the services will be non-regulated and, likewise, private providers will guarantee the services with minimum State intervention. This is the reason why this trend or concept in the administration, regulation and provision of the services, tending towards greater participation of private enterprise, apparently guaranteeing free and fair competition and the resulting internationalization of the service is so interesting.
In the majority of cases, and perhaps with the exception of Mexico, only the technical aspects of the mass media, radio and television are regulated. The majority proclaim these media as either a public service or, at least, in the general interest and try not to impose requirements concerning content or the protection of national, indigenous production.
The majority of the countries have policies to provide funds for the development of telecommunications to guarantee universal access as subsidies for communities unable to cover the costs or which are not included in the authorized scope of the operators, because they are not profitable for the countries.
Interest in the technological, administrative, economic and content management convergence and in digitalization in the near future is also considerable. In the respective legal frameworks, as well as in the development and strategic plans available to the enquiry, there is a certain directioning towards licensing common carriers. This means the provision of several services: mobile and international telephony, added value, open and restricted television and radio, ISP and VolP, etc., may be granted to a single operator.
Click here to see an English summary of the Normative and Regulatory Framework Document.
2. How do transnational communities communicate
The most usual means of communication, according to reports of the members of the Control panel and investigations carried out are, in general are: telephone, letters, visits by relatives or encomenderos (eg: people who travel continuously across borders carrying money , messages and tangible objects exchanged among emigrants and their families), use of the Internet and video-conferences, videos and cassettes. However, radio may be highlighted: it is providing an alternative communication medium through its integration with other media, such as the Internet and telephony, printed press and television programs.
Let us go back to some considerations of Katharine Andrade-Eekhoff and Claudia M Silva-Avalos [12] in this respect:
"Networks are formed by the most intimate relations of individuals, beginning with home and family ties, in which potential migrants take advantage of their contacts with brothers and sisters, aunts, cousins and others who live in the other territory to obtain information on migration, financing the journey and inserting themselves into a new location. The destination of migrants is not at random, but based on these family and community relations.
Socio-cultural exchanges not only have an impact on migrants, but also on persons who do not emigrate. These flows, which are less obvious, include the reproduction of social and cultural identities in different spaces.
The frequency and scope of these changes (economic, socio-cultural and political) are important in determining the density and diversity of transnationalism in migratory processes."
Regular communication among families takes place through public mail, messengers, telephone services and even the Internet in some cases.
These concepts are supported by Luis R. Moran [13], who established an "expansion of culture" a consequence, and at the same time, an effect of remittances in two processes: culture transported to the place of origin and that of preserving local symbols extended to other day to day aspects and is altered in the constant relationship with originating and destination societies. On the other hand Vertovec [14], emphasizes the concepts of "Social Networks, Social Capital and Embeddedness" in order to understand transnationalization.
In spite of the fact that in the basic and sustaining elements of the transnational phenomenon, communication appears as fundamental, little attention has been paid to the study of this cultural manifestation. While it is true that the economic impact of remittances is definitive at both the micro level of families and the macro level of institutions and states, and that most of the studies have concentrated on this and even the cultural studies of this phenomenon have been based on it, there is no particular emphasis for the study of day to day communication. What is happening at domestic and community levels to messages, telephone calls, letters and packages which complement remittances? What is the role of encomenderos, remeseros o viajeros in family communication? What is happening in the social spaces provided by telephone booths, Internet cafes and radios? And, as far as representation is concerned, what is the role of the mass media in the formation of perceived images (imaginarios) and identifications, of cultural appropriations? what changes or hybridization and mixtures are being incorporated into the media?
In general, in both academic and professional literature, the cultural factor of communication has little information and investigative focus, in spite of its being considered fundamental by all the authors documented.
A prevalent factor in communications, at the level of originating communities and their diasporas is telephone communication. Its coverage and expenses have been increased in line with emigrants' income. In all the cases studied, telephony is the most used means of transnational communication.
Click here for summaries in English of the focus countries' reports.
Click herefor the complete reports in Spanish.
In the majority of cases, telephony is a State policy through the national operator: TELMEX in Mexico, ENITEL in Nicaragua, Grupo ICE in Costa Rica, but in other cases, such as that of El Salvador, there has been spectacular growth in wireless* telephony. One case, that of Guatemala, illustrates the growth in telephone communications: it grew, in two trimesters, (from 2002 to 2003) by 31 per cent. Although the greatest growth in absolute terms continues to be towards the United States, in relative terms the largest growth was to other Central American countries and Mexico, which, in itself, is an indication of an important panorama of contacts, access, infrastructure and demand, all in the process of the region's insertion into internationalization and possibly the region's own development and integration.
According to the field report by Elias Hernandez, one of the Mexican consultants and member of the Control panel "a considerable number of telephonic communication are established through telephone booths or sites of public access to the telephone service. One dynamic found in the communities furthest away from these towns is known as the "voceo". That is, a call is made by an emigrant from the United States to these communities' telephone booths but, as they are often a long way away from the booth, they place a loud speaker on top of it and the call is made through it".
The analysis of the figures for telephone calls' traffic originated in the USA or in the different countries (according to information for the year 2000[15] provided by the FCC (Federal Communication Commission) and taking into account the respective duration and invoicing as indicators of what this traffic signifies in transnationalization), shows the following:
In all cases, more calls originate in the United States than in the different countries: in the case of Dominican Republic, incoming calls from the United States are 6.5 times more that outgoing calls to the USA; in that of Costa Rica the number is 4.3, with 3.8 for Guatemala , 3.4 for Mexico, 8.4 for Salvador, 11 for Honduras, 14 for Nicaragua and 19 for Haiti. These indexes already show an important factor in the direction of the flow by economic factors, technological availability and supply.
A second element to consider is that, regardless of their origin, calls have a similar duration, with the exception of Guatemala, where calls from the USA have an average duration almost 4 times longer. This could indicate that, although the origin of the flows favours the USA, in day to day communication the need for both directions is the same and emigrants, as well as their relatives and friends, are willing to communicate as extensively as possible. This factor is important in the study, in accordance with the conceptual elements addressed.
Analysis of telephone traffic between the United States and the countries in the study[16]
The two columns on the left of this analysis table show that, in the case of payments or collection by USA carriers, the balance is more favorable to them. Only in the cases of Haiti and Honduras is the balance negative by some 63% and 17.5%, respectively. In the cases of Costa Rica, Mexico and Panama, the balance in collections favors the USA carriers by over 40%. Comparison of these indexes shows clearly that the follows of the international telephone services depend not only on the economic situation of the person calling, but also the entire infrastructure, availability and possibly the supply of this service generated by competition in the USA, which could be an argument for the competition regime, the internationalization of telecommunications services and their deregulation in the different countries. However, it cannot be definitively concluded, as we do not have all the historical and micro level figures which could provide a more definitive conclusion.
The Internet is growing as an important communication medium in domestic use and consumption; however, and in spite of its considerable impact on communication of economic, political and cultural activities, its use is not as extensive in the communities of origin, as it is outlined in some studies. This "over rating" of internet use is present in programming and strategic plans of communities and organizations, such as clubs of fellow countrymen (Clubes de Oriundos), in foundations and NGOs, as well as in official politicies and amongst some academics. In the majority of countries, these services have been introduced through the national operator, but "cibercafï¿*", "telecentros", "infocentros", "telecabinas", "telekioskos" are spaces which have also included the appropriate infrastructure required for the use of Internet, chatting, webcam, and Internet telephony (Voip).
El Salvador, for example, has established a whole network of "infocentros" in its 14 departments (provinces) as a State policy to facilitate access by different groups to the new information and communication technologies. Mexico has a very large scale government program called e-Mexico which is intended to encourage the development of ITCs, throughout the country and especially in the most remote regions with the greatest economic and infrastructure difficulties.
The Internet and Chat are more easily assimilated by young people and arise as a phenomenon for exploring and inquiring in a particular form of communication and certain virtual socialization between contemporary groups.
As to the Internet, there is much to be explored, but it is clear that, in some way, it is being promoted for intra-family communication and communication between groups and fellow countrymen, as a means of sustaining, legitimization or visibility of their "existence", a form of materializing the ideal sought by these groups and what they wish to become.
The Internet appears to offer a sense of confidence and security to fellow countrymen's clubs or hometown associations and to people who discover their identity or what is left of it. Or to those who wish to look for it through the process of "imagine yourself there, living here". Yet we found that most of these initiatives which arose from within the USA have little continuity. In spite its potential, the Internet does not seem yet an appropriate or constant communication medium between communities of origin and receivers due to access, cultural, educational and economic factors, among others.
An experience worth highlighting, because it plays an outstanding role in the process of communication and cultural ties, is that of encomenderos, also called remitters, travelers or messengers, according to the country involved.
In fact, little has been studied about the encomenderos, in spite of their being an extremely important tie in communication from and between these communities. They are mediating actors (mediadores) and, in their role, are not a cold or neutral means, but rather, on the contrary, they articulate much more in their narratives than party counterparts over the telephone. The spoken exchanges and narratives established are nurtured and renewed by these communicators. These should be studied as constant processes and as connections in the construction of symbolic systems and "imaginarios" (perceived images) for the "new identities".
According to Katharine Andrade-Eekhoff, academic from FLACSO - El Salvador and collaborator of this project, it is important to mention the encomenderos as part of the experiences which promote transnational communication: "Perhaps they are not considered communication transmitters, but they really do play a fundamental role in the process, as they transmit many things and interpretations that cannot be shared by telephone. People, mostly women, seek the services of other women to channel not only money or packages, but interpretations, indications, etc. They are a fundamental hinge in transnational relations and the part they play as communicators is very important".
Click here for opinions extracted from the dialogue process with the "key players" - Interviews and Network Document.
From an anthropological point of view, from which, at micro level, the multiple interrelations on the subject can be seen clearly, we highlight the "Aide Mï¿*oire: Visit to the transnational community of El Coyol. Survey of Remittances Sent by Immigrants in the USA"[17]. Their wealth consists of showing how transnational communities are transformed, above all outside the large cities, as little is known of these bridges, messengers, cultural ties and their economic and cultural impact.
The study of "El Coyol", in spite of being an apparently simple narrative, allows an anthropological approach to the theme of travelers' personal services, remitters or encomenderos. It offers indispensable elements to consolidate the studies of transnational communities: their cultural roots or their breakdown, the transmutation of cultural elements of the receiver society towards the originating society and vice versa; likewise, communication as a result, cause and effect of established economic relations among communities and their diasporas.
Similar cases in the Dominican Republic and El Salvador, respectively, are narrated in the following documents: Only work of Sabana Iglesia: wait for remittances from the United States[18] (Único trabajo Sabana Iglesia: Esperar remesas de Estados Unidos); and International Migration and development: The case of Santa Elena, Usulután[19] (Migracin Internacional y Desarrollo: El caso de Santa Elena. Usulután).
These three cases enable us to understand the relevance of the descriptive and analytical field studies, as well as Elias Hernandez' document.
3. Experiences that promote transnational communications
The community networks and associations formed by emigrants are experiences that promote solidarity and contact among transnational communities. Also of great importance is the case of the Hometown Associations ( clubes de oriundos), which have found an option on Internet's websites . These help them establish their identity, legitimacy and permanence as well as give them visibility in their work of establishing fellow countrymen ties. Social, cultural-civic and development activities are projected and, with the support of these websites, produce a great impact and integration effect for the originating communities and for migrants themselves.
Radio appears to have a renewed participation as one of the media, although not with the expected impact and dimension, in the communication processes among the communities and their families and diasporas, combined with other technologies such as the telephone, with the Internet and mail. Several radio stations and programs provide spaces for transnational cultural exchanges and some of them have established mechanisms for programs used to send messages through a Website, electronic mail, a letter or telephone call, which are read and exchanged during the broadcast.
For example, the Nicaraguan radio program La Hermandad (The Brotherhood) is broadcast from Monday to Friday on Radio La Primerï¿*ima and Costa Rican Radio CuC. It sends messages, greetings, news on health, work, etc., as well as announces the sending of packages, notifications of arrivals and recommendations given by Nicaraguan emigrants resident in Costa Rica to their relatives, children, mothers and friends who live in Nicaragua. Time is also used for greetings and news to be sent from Nicaragua to Costa Rica.
In a dialogue with IIan Stavans, one of the foremost researchers in Spanglish, he emphasized on this medium: "Radio has a verbal presence which exceeds by far television or even theatre, not to mention the cinema. Radio here is perhaps really the most democratic communication media -the telephone is not a communication medium, but rather an instrument- radio is impressive".
In Mexico[20], we may highlight the experience of the National Indigenous People's Institute (Instituto Nacional Indigenista, INI), with the Indigenous Cultural Radio Broadcasters System[21] (Sistema de Radiodifusoras Culturales Indigenistas) and the Mexican Radio Institute (Instituto Mexicano de la Radio, IMER), which is at present responsible for twenty stations in national territory, among them three broadcasters in the northern frontier zone: Tijuana, Ciudad Juarez and Ciudad Acua, which serve as a communication medium or link between the communities on both sides of the border. Personal and family messages are sent by telephone, letter and, in some cases, over the Internet; they are received by the station, which broadcasts them on the programs. This allows relatives, friends and communities organized in areas with great access difficulties to communicate with each other. Messages relate to the sending of remittances, dates and times for future telephone communication and celebrations, among others.
It would appear that the versatility of access to radio and the participation of listeners, its local nature or local appeal as well as its basis in oral culture, enable it to transcend frontiers and become a two-way, cross border medium. Radio integrated to other technologies is adapting itself as a communication option in some communities which - because of their access, economic and low educational level difficulties - have a tendency towards, and preference for communication based on personal messages with a focus on the use of the spoken word.
There are also experiences in printed press, with both its paper and virtual pages. Some have English versions, as many of the national newspapers recognize the need for co-nationals to be informed of events in their country.
Elias Hernandez refers, for example, to the experience of Testimonio: "a family organization of Zacatecas that promotes a local newspaper and a Website which serve as a communication and integration bridge for emigrants, their families and communities of origin. In the same state there is a radio station which does the same, with a coverage of some neighbouring states and some southern USA states".
Television is not necessarily the medium best adapted to favour transnational communities and the majority of the collaborators refer to its unwillingness or contempt for providing forms of communication among communities, which we corroborated in our search.
Click here to see News Media Review - Television Organizations and Projects.
Click here to see News Media Review - Television Productions.
Humberto Abaunza, a prominent Nicaraguan communicator, and member of the Control Panel has called attention to some of the Nicaraguan television programs: Margarita Te Voy a Contar, a talk show transmitted by Televicentro Canal 2 of Nicaragua every Saturday, which includes a segment called Puente Familiar, on which Nicaraguans with relatives in Miami, United States, send the name, address and telephone number to the program presenter, who undertakes to contact the people in Miami and record their greetings, which are later transmitted on television; Pura Vida Nica, a pre-recorded television program transmitted by the Nicaraguan News Channel, CDNN Canal 23 and on the ESTESA cable system Channel 99 every Saturday. It consists of sending a program reporter to Costa Rica to interview Nicaraguan emigrants and tell about their day to day life and living conditions.
Some NGOs and, in particular, those involved in human rights, development issues and in the discussion on the right to information and knowledge, are contributing definitively to maintaining and consolidating networks among organisms and institutions, making proposals between governments and providing assistance for migrants, promoting spaces for study and analysis of the issues, among others.
There are certain cultural and communication projects in each country, in theater, musical groups, etc., sponsored and supported by NGOs and the countries themselves, which expect to contribute to the identity and recognition of transnational actors.
Due to the migrant flow and resulting economic and political impact of remittances, States and political parties have tried to keep their groups of nationals in the USA within their regulations and policy proposals on citizenship and other fiscal issues. The cases of Mexico, El Salvador and Dominican Republic are examples of this trend.
On the Internet there are websites, both personal and about their places of origin, which are an attempt by some migrants to extend their identity and remain linked to a cultural territory, even if only virtual.
We also highlight the use of the Internet in transnational communication with the experience of the Yahoo Latin Migrant Group[22] (Grupo Migrante Latino de Yahoo). This is a virtual forum dedicated to "the situation of Latin migrants in any part of the world", which was founded on June 24, 2002. Through it, participants exchange messages on a variety of subjects related to their situation as migrants. Some of the most outstanding contents and uses are: requests for information on legal aspects relating to migration; health and education services; the search for persons who disappeared during migration processes; contacts in the United states, recounting experiences, initiatives, as well as cultural, sports, literary and social activities, etc., as well as looking for people interested in them or offering support for them; the space is also used to criticize the actions of institutions and persons whose work is related to migrants and their rights and quality of life.
Migrants in the USA
A study by C&V International[23] shows that 55% of the 35.3 million Hispanics who live in the United States have equal presence on the Web as the Anglo Saxons and more that Afro-Americans.
This population's main uses of the Internet are electronic mail (76%), for research (74%) and education (67%), to find news (60%), listen to music (54%), to chat (43%), shopping (30%), work (29%), to plan trips (28%), to keep informed about events in Latin America (27%), to send files and images (27%), to participate in group games (21%), to send instantaneous messages or participate in mailing lists (155), among others, as shown by the U.S. Hispanics are Online and Spending study.[24]
The Internet is also used by migrants for consultations on legal and welfare matters (residence, health services, studies, driving licenses and other documents), search for migrant relatives or friends, disappeared persons or people from whom they have had no news for some time; to circulate information on subjects of interest, institutions, events, news, and notifications and calls for common causes.
The studies carried out by The Tomas Rivera Policy Institute- TRPI: Talking back to Television [25] (a research on access to television technologies, television watching behaviour, including languages used and the type of programs watched) ask questions such as: do Hispanics/Latins see themselves on TV? How are they represented: positively or negatively? Do they look better on TV in English or Spanish, or in both? How do they react when the see an image on TV that is offensive to them? Other studies such as Engaging Television in English and Spanish,[26] and Latino Viewing Choices: Bilingual Television Viewers and the Language Choices They Make[27] have contributed not only to putting forward and describing television processes in representing Latinos, in their program tastes and preferences, in bilingualism and the language of reception, among others, but also to propose possible policies on them in the media. The main conclusions are that Latinos are the people who watch most television, have a dichotomy of opinion as to the positive or negative aspects of Hispanics on screen, mostly watch TV in Spanish for entertainment and news in English and consider that TV in English tends to show more violence.
In Changing Channels and Crisscrossing Cultures: A survey of Latinos on the News Media[28], Roberto Suro of the Pew Hispanic Center records the results of a study carried out by this Center to explore Latinos' preferences in the United States on sources of information, their attitudes towards the media, language preferences between English and Spanish and how these choices of media affect their opinions on matters of public interest, their relationship with their new settlement area and their identity related processes.
This study was carried out by telephone interviews. To a certain extent, the conclusions of this study point to those of the Tomás Rivera Policy Institute: Latinos are divided between English and Spanish when it comes to how they keep themselves informed. On the other hand, when it comes to the use of the medium in general, there is no specific preference and the "zapping" between channels is more fluid. Instead of audiences segmented by language, the majority keep informed in both languages. But information in Spanish decreases as time of settlement increases. Latinos not only choose the medium, but also the language for their news, and are more bilingual when relating to the media than when reading or writing. This is an important characteristic for marketing, the formation of identities and for voting behaviour. Latinos have reservations regarding the image that is projected of them in English language media. Radio is indisputably the Latinos' medium of preference.
UNIVISION[29] and TELEMUNDO[30] are the two largest Spanish language television chains in the United States. Their programs are basically for entertainment and their production relies on the Mexican networks (TELEVISA and TV Azteca), although not exclusively: soap operas, musical shows, news and current affairs, among others. However, their information policy is established and implemented directly in the USA. These two large networks also widely popular in Central American and Caribbean countries.
In countries of Central America and the Caribbean where programming targeted to the US Hispanic community is available, there seems to be a tendency to use this rather than the international broadcast.
The media also record Latinos' impact on the media; some examples for television, radio and the press:
"[Weber] recognized that the Hispanic viewing market is "complex", because Hispanics "consume television in both English and Spanish. There are also notable differences between the East coast, for example, where more international programs are preferred, and the mountainous zone or the West coast, where the strong Mexican presence is more inclined towards programs of Mexican origin".[31]
"Growth in the Hispanic press in the United States contrasts with the reduction in circulation recorded in the rest of the USA newspapers. The circulation of newspapers in Spanish or targeted to Hispanics has risen from 2.7 million in 1984 to 14.1 million in the year 2000, according to a Western Publications Research study. In contrast, the circulation of newspapers targeted to a more general United States public was down by 10 per cent in the decade of the 1990s, according to International Newspaper Marketing Association data. According to a study by the Independent Press Association, New York has 198 magazines and newspapers serving 52 ethnic groups in 36 languages, 300 per cent more than a decade ago. What is surprising is that, in this city there are the same numbers of newspapers in English and Spanish: three in each, which is another indicator of the consolidation of Latin power.
In 1970, there were 232 Hispanic newspapers with a total circulation of one million and they invoiced some 14 million dollars, according to a study by expert Kirk Whisler, which analyzed the growth of the graphic Latin media".[32]
According to the edition 2003 of the Arbitron report "La Radio Hispana Hoy. Cmo América Escucha La Radio" [33], "There are more than 13,000 radio stations transmitting throughout the country, of which over 650 are in Hispanic format. This study shows that radio is a constantly popular medium among Hispanic Americans. Radio is examined, highlighting its strength as a medium and analyzing the behaviour of the audience for eight of the main formats".
The media that cater to the Hispanic or Latino community in the USA are primarily commercial. However, their tremendous growth and profuse availability in Spanish and also in English indicate that, either consciously or unconsciously, the way they are producing and scheduling programmes is somehow reinforcing and helping this community's (or communities') claims to identity and transnationalism, in a continuous exchange with their host cultures.
There are also multi-media productions to stimulate learning, reading, basic health behaviours, and other development issues which include: a) Read and You Will Be[34], created in response to the community's wish to have an innovative program to improve children's reading levels; b) Hablemos en confianza[35] (Let's talk confidentially), a public education campaign which includes communication materials designed to encourage and strengthen dialogue between Latin, Spanish speaking parents and their children about the dangers of drugs; c) Hablamos Juntos[36] (We Speak Together), a project dedicated to improving communication between United States' health care providers and their patients with limited English speaking skills.
The above gives an idea of the impact of the Hispanic market in the USA.
Conclusions
Based on the results of this landscaping study we believe that it is important to continue the research process, priorizing the following aspects that need further exploration:
Finally, to quote from the Federal Communication Commission-FCC Strategic Plan 2003-2008: click here.
A new type of migration is occurring today. Past migrations involved the physical movement of people from one place to another leading to the diffusion of cultures, tools, habits, ideas, and forms of political organization. Modern migrations involve not the movement of people but fundamental shifts in technologies. These technologies change not only how people live but also how they think about what is possible. No technology more clearly reveals the face of "new possibilities" than communication technologies - radio, television, wireline, satellite, and cable - that the FCC is charged to regulate.
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Summary /General overview of the investigation /The transnational perspective /The role of remittances in transnational communities / Considerations on communication, culture and identities for transnational communities /Communication perspective
Summary [top]
General overview of the enquiry
We found that research about transnational communities is very extensive. There is a vast conceptual development of the subject, in both the receiver and the originating cultures, but the most outstanding research focus is on emigration flows, the increase in emigration, its effects on economic aspects; on remittances and their positive or negative impact and their role in the development and well being of the originating and transnational communities. We also found that there are no substantial mass media projects on transnational communities. However, the importance and influence of these communities is beginning to be recognized: a) in the communication, telecommunication, radio and television laws drawn up by the States; b) in the internationalization, ownership structures and programming of the media; and c) within this last aspect , homogeneous genres and information; portrayals of behaviour patterns that take into account the mixtures of cultures; and references to common symbols, images, and audiovisual language. Below we present some basic foundations and concepts that served as a base for this work and the main findings on the three axial subjects mentioned above.
Click here for a complete list of the documentation consulted - Academic Literature review.
The transnational perspective [top]
There are diverse definitions of transnationalism. We took as a basis the concept of L. Bash, N. Glick Schiller and C. Blanc-Szanton [1]
"Transnationalism" defined as the processes through which immigrants force and sustain social relations of many weaves and stratifications uniting their original and host societies. We call these processes transnationalism to emphasize that immigrants today build social fields which transcend geographical, cultural and political boundaries. An essential element is the multiplicity of roles (commitments) which "transmigrants" play in both their original and receiver societies. We are still searching for an appropriate terminology to describe these "social" locations...
It is important to clarify that, although the terms Migration, Transnational Communities and Diaspora are closely linked and we use them as a category, sometimes without differentiation, they are defined in the academic literature as phases with certain conditions related to cultural processes and settlement which make them different.
Cristian Doa Reyeco [2] explains some of the factors which serve to differentiate phases, the relationships or links and some of their characteristics, affirming that relationships established by trans-migrants in both societies "are sustained by the continuous physical transfer of individuals between their areas of origin and destination; however, not all immigrants are transmigrants; only immigrants who lead a double life are transmigrants: they share two cultures, have homes in both countries and build their life by means of continuous exchanges across borders."
This author also identifies three phases or types of transnational social spaces and presents the basic elements for investigation based on communication in each of them:
Related transnational groups are the most basic forms established in the first migratory movements and are formed by family members, relatives and close friends of the same nucleus or society; easy flowing, constant communication is of great importance for these groups to keep the rules, for the continuity of remittances and for the impact of these at the domestic sphere level. This phase relates to the day to day aspect of communication.
Transnational circuits are the second phase in migratory flows, in which the community is expanding beyond kinship due to size and diverse groups with common, identifiable roots and ties: communication is necessary for the formation of social networks and their duration in time, as well as for their visibility and legitimization. This stage belongs increasingly to the public sphere, but it is also present in the discourses, symbols and representations, not only of the individual, but of the group which forms the circuit.
In the transnational communities phase, the transformation and inclusion, as well as the strengthening of cultural identities, physical settlement and shared loyalties, are not only in their comings and goings, but in "being there but living here". Here, shared identity is reinforced by mediation (mediacin), in the flow and availability of communication, in the use and facilitation of new technologies, for example on the websites of immigrants and Hometown Associations.
Information flows in all directions and, in spite of the hierarchies which define these phases, it is indispensable for transnationalization to be seen as a series of active processes in which all phases or types of transnational social spaces are somehow present, in which communication supports each of them but, at the same time, furthers transformation from groups of relatives to diasporic communities.
Alejandro Portes [3], in turn, explains that migratory movements and transnational processes do not arise as non-reflective, random actions, but rather driven by globalization and the logic of capitalism which generate the need for manual labor in the most developed countries.
The role of remittances in transnational communities [top]
Remittances have served as a platform for follow-up and analysis of transnational communities. This is undoubtedly a primordial factor because of its economic impact, at both micro or domestic and macro levels, on countries.
Manuel Orozco [4], director of Diálogo Interamericano (Inter-Amercan Dialogue) for Central America, has specialized in the study of remittances. In his study Globalization and Migration. El impacto de las remesas familiares a América Latina (Globalization and Migration. The impact of remittances to families in Latin America), Orozco studies remittances as a main objective to explain the impact of migrations on the development of countries of origin, above all analyzing their decisive nature for receiver countries, as well as the concept of "service" that results from this flow and the consequent efforts of institutions and states to introduce this into their economic and social policies. It is precisely this that underlies the phenomenon of communication among the different actors: senders and receivers of remittances; activities of services for the flow of remittances, both large and small, and the respective senders and receivers and the state and agencies involved in the countries' development policies.
Deborah Waller Meyers [5] , in her review of the studies and literature on the phenomenon of remittances and their impact on receiver communities, evidences that these generate, and in turn are generated by, the constant flow of communication, the communities' sense of belonging and the cultural and affective relations constantly sustained and reproduced through communication.
Considerations on communication, culture and identities for transnational communities [top]
Jesus Martin Barbero and Renato Ortiz analyze the displacements and the formation of the concept of identity from a perspective of: local and global ; national communities and transnationalism, continuity and rupture, circulation of people and ideas, amongst others:
Even strongest local cultures undergo changes which affect their way of experiencing belong to the territory and ways of living their identity. These are the same movements which displace the old borders between the traditional and the modern, the popular and the massive, the local and the global. Today, these changes and movements are crucial to understand how traditional, national and urban communities survive, break down and are re-created."Jesus Martin-Barbero [6]
..."the appearance of modern societies requires social relations to no longer be subjected to the local concept of interaction. Everything happens as if in previous societies space and time had been contained within physical space. Modernity breaks this continuity, transferring social relations to a broader territory. Due to the circulation of people, merchandise, symbolic references and ideas, space expands."Renato Ortiz [7]
It may be concluded from Renato Ortiz[8] and Seven Vertovec's [9] reflections that identity is no longer contained within a physical space, nor is it based exclusively on the notion of the nation-state, but is related to the way in which networks, remittances, movements and continuous contacts facilitated by telecommunication, the mass media, displacements and transportation articulate. These transnationalism processes have an impact on the self-recognition of emigrants, as well as of the originating or native communities and even on the receiver communities.
Luis E Guarnizo's [10] concept of transnational living refers to a "condition", which implies a series of transborder processes started and maintained by "migrants". This leads to a complex weave of activities, from remittances and cultural reproductions and social interactions to political participation. This is an area of dynamic interaction and constant activity involving the different actors: individuals, groups and institutions, that is, the community and the interacting communities. This concept and the transformation of societies covers some of the most expeditious and dynamic segments of telephony, air travel and the financial sector, such as international calls, ethno-tourism (return to the place of origin for periods of time) and private remittances or transfers of money.
The Communication perspective [top]
Although there are many ways of perceiving communication, we would like to consider it for this enquiry as: processes and symbolic and cultural systems, as agents in which identities are defined, in which the subject's ideology and displacement are organized and reproduced. Communication as a world of regulatory and cultural processes per se, but also of transgression and continuous arrays of meaning and mediation (mediacin)[11]. Therefore, all utterances or symbolic representations, whether mediated or not, in the building and continuous rebuilding of the ties and contacts that maintain transnational communities fall within this perspective.
The following diagram shows the importance of communication for the study and understanding of communities within transnationalization, and as a contemporary phenomenon. The different authors quoted agree that this is a defining element and that there are causal relationships between communication and the conformation of these communities. It is impossible to understand transnational communities without the perspective of communication.
The following diagram shows the importance of communications for the study and understanding of communities within transnationalization and as a contemporary phenomenon. The different authors cited agree that this is a defining element and that there are causal relationships between communications and the formation of these communities. It is impossible to understand transnational communities without the perspective of communication.
Based on: Karin Weyland et al., Control Panel, Dominican Republic. Developed by the "Communication Landscaping – North and Latin American Transnational Communities" enquiry team, Colombia, 2004
1. Communications structures and context
In order to a) establish an overview of the frameworks and legal regulations relating to the infrastructure of communication and their uses; b) map the regulatory environment ; c) compile data on telephony and its scope, on the Internet, radio and television and d) understand certain economic aspects relevant to the subject, the main regulatory institutions for these services were identified, as well as the pertinent laws, decrees and plans. We also included a selection of indicators on the telecommunication sector for each focus country (Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Dominican Republic, Hait as well as Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Honduras).
Within the legal frameworks analyzed, we find a political tactic regarding the regime of competition, regulation by the market and deregulation of telecommunication and mass communication. These are all consistent with the influx of the so-called globalization and the resulting insertion of the communities or countries under study in the trends towards privatization and freedom of foreign investment. Migratory flows from small countries like El Salvador and Dominican Republic appear to have contributed in benefit of these tendencies, due to dependence and their impact on the remittances. In the case of Mexico, this influx is, to a certain extent, obvious: the traditional migration from towns and states to the USA; economic inter-dependence; the resulting consolidation of enclaves of fellow countrymen, economic integration and, why not, cultural integration among different socio-geographical points, among others.
In principle, competition and deregulation should benefit the consumer and the expansion of the market insofar as the varying quality supply and competitive prices are a condition. Telecommunication flows have increased in all countries and the cases of those mentioned above show that both supply and consumption have increased. However, according to the 'control panel's' analyses and in spite of the improvement in telephony conditions and coverage, users do not appear to be greatly satisfied and the governments' laissez faire role and the resulting ownership concentration have been questioned. The flow of telecommunication favours those originating in the USA considerably.
As to regulation of the mass media, they continue in lieu of concentration and private policies regarding the concept of the media as a primarily commercial activity, and also of the investments and program and production structure of the Mexican media. The penetration of Telemundo and Univision, both related to the large Mexican media conglomerates, is permanently increasing in all these countries. However, there has been little research and representation in the media on the issue of migration, the construction of perceived images (imaginarios) and the consolidation of broad, inclusive informative processes.
The outstanding elements in this overview on legal and normative structures are, among others.: a) the regulations and their competitive application; b) supply, service quality and tariffs; c) the complete separation between regulators and operators; d) the concept of universal service and guaranteed access; e) the concession, permits and licenses and f) in general, the autonomy of regulatory bodies and the role of the state. These aspects have strongly influenced the new proposals of modernization and insertion into the internationalization of these societies.
The new concept of telecommunication, with a new legal framework, was formally introduced in the nineties. In all the countries, without exception, the new framework stipulated, on the one hand, the creation of regulatory bodies and, on the other, telecommunication services providers. That is, state monopolies for the provision of this service came to an end ( which, in turn, had acted as regulators of their own operation) and the competitive regime was introduced, at least in principle. The regulatory bodies arose within the concept of modern states, with characteristics of autonomy and general competition, but it differed from country to country. Almost all depended on their Ministries of Communication and, in some cases, directly on the executive head of government.
Regulation as a principle was consolidated as telecommunications services operation ceased to be provided directly by states and free, fair competition and the market as a guarantee of quality, access and tariffs were promoted. All the regulatory frameworks establish this principle. However, there are considerable differences in the formulation of these frameworks and in the concept of enforcement of regulations.
In all cases, with the exception of Costa Rica, telecommunications operators were privatized, with either major or minor restrictions concerning private investment and foreign capital.
In some cases, such as Mexico and Costa Rica, tariffs were established by Government initiatives or legal provisions or by direct provision of the service.
These two countries, in addition, are different in their conception and application of guidelines for running telecommunications. The guidance and direct intervention of the Government, through three Ministries (Secretariats) in the regulations and norms for the concession, content, rights, national production, economic support and promotion, is clear in the case of Mexico. Costa Rica, for its part, grants the regulatory entity executive powers, but maintains a State monopoly of the operation and provision of the services. In both cases, the State is involved, both formally and in practice, linked to the concept of public good, according to which the service guarantor is the State itself. How effective is this? It is difficult to answer, but they are the only two countries which at least outline a political map of telecommunication in their development plans and strategies for the sector.
In the cases of El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Dominican Republic and Nicaragua, the trend is towards the establishment of minimum regulations or, at least, categorization of the service in such a way that there will be fewer and fewer requirements and finally the services will be non-regulated and, likewise, private providers will guarantee the services with minimum State intervention. This is the reason why this trend or concept in the administration, regulation and provision of the services, tending towards greater participation of private enterprise, apparently guaranteeing free and fair competition and the resulting internationalization of the service is so interesting.
In the majority of cases, and perhaps with the exception of Mexico, only the technical aspects of the mass media, radio and television are regulated. The majority proclaim these media as either a public service or, at least, in the general interest and try not to impose requirements concerning content or the protection of national, indigenous production.
The majority of the countries have policies to provide funds for the development of telecommunications to guarantee universal access as subsidies for communities unable to cover the costs or which are not included in the authorized scope of the operators, because they are not profitable for the countries.
Interest in the technological, administrative, economic and content management convergence and in digitalization in the near future is also considerable. In the respective legal frameworks, as well as in the development and strategic plans available to the enquiry, there is a certain directioning towards licensing common carriers. This means the provision of several services: mobile and international telephony, added value, open and restricted television and radio, ISP and VolP, etc., may be granted to a single operator.
Click here to see an English summary of the Normative and Regulatory Framework Document.
2. How do transnational communities communicate
The most usual means of communication, according to reports of the members of the Control panel and investigations carried out are, in general are: telephone, letters, visits by relatives or encomenderos (eg: people who travel continuously across borders carrying money , messages and tangible objects exchanged among emigrants and their families), use of the Internet and video-conferences, videos and cassettes. However, radio may be highlighted: it is providing an alternative communication medium through its integration with other media, such as the Internet and telephony, printed press and television programs.
Let us go back to some considerations of Katharine Andrade-Eekhoff and Claudia M Silva-Avalos [12] in this respect:
"Networks are formed by the most intimate relations of individuals, beginning with home and family ties, in which potential migrants take advantage of their contacts with brothers and sisters, aunts, cousins and others who live in the other territory to obtain information on migration, financing the journey and inserting themselves into a new location. The destination of migrants is not at random, but based on these family and community relations.
Socio-cultural exchanges not only have an impact on migrants, but also on persons who do not emigrate. These flows, which are less obvious, include the reproduction of social and cultural identities in different spaces.
The frequency and scope of these changes (economic, socio-cultural and political) are important in determining the density and diversity of transnationalism in migratory processes."
Regular communication among families takes place through public mail, messengers, telephone services and even the Internet in some cases.
These concepts are supported by Luis R. Moran [13], who established an "expansion of culture" a consequence, and at the same time, an effect of remittances in two processes: culture transported to the place of origin and that of preserving local symbols extended to other day to day aspects and is altered in the constant relationship with originating and destination societies. On the other hand Vertovec [14], emphasizes the concepts of "Social Networks, Social Capital and Embeddedness" in order to understand transnationalization.
In spite of the fact that in the basic and sustaining elements of the transnational phenomenon, communication appears as fundamental, little attention has been paid to the study of this cultural manifestation. While it is true that the economic impact of remittances is definitive at both the micro level of families and the macro level of institutions and states, and that most of the studies have concentrated on this and even the cultural studies of this phenomenon have been based on it, there is no particular emphasis for the study of day to day communication. What is happening at domestic and community levels to messages, telephone calls, letters and packages which complement remittances? What is the role of encomenderos, remeseros o viajeros in family communication? What is happening in the social spaces provided by telephone booths, Internet cafes and radios? And, as far as representation is concerned, what is the role of the mass media in the formation of perceived images (imaginarios) and identifications, of cultural appropriations? what changes or hybridization and mixtures are being incorporated into the media?
In general, in both academic and professional literature, the cultural factor of communication has little information and investigative focus, in spite of its being considered fundamental by all the authors documented.
A prevalent factor in communications, at the level of originating communities and their diasporas is telephone communication. Its coverage and expenses have been increased in line with emigrants' income. In all the cases studied, telephony is the most used means of transnational communication.
Click here for summaries in English of the focus countries' reports.
Click herefor the complete reports in Spanish.
In the majority of cases, telephony is a State policy through the national operator: TELMEX in Mexico, ENITEL in Nicaragua, Grupo ICE in Costa Rica, but in other cases, such as that of El Salvador, there has been spectacular growth in wireless* telephony. One case, that of Guatemala, illustrates the growth in telephone communications: it grew, in two trimesters, (from 2002 to 2003) by 31 per cent. Although the greatest growth in absolute terms continues to be towards the United States, in relative terms the largest growth was to other Central American countries and Mexico, which, in itself, is an indication of an important panorama of contacts, access, infrastructure and demand, all in the process of the region's insertion into internationalization and possibly the region's own development and integration.
According to the field report by Elias Hernandez, one of the Mexican consultants and member of the Control panel "a considerable number of telephonic communication are established through telephone booths or sites of public access to the telephone service. One dynamic found in the communities furthest away from these towns is known as the "voceo". That is, a call is made by an emigrant from the United States to these communities' telephone booths but, as they are often a long way away from the booth, they place a loud speaker on top of it and the call is made through it".
The analysis of the figures for telephone calls' traffic originated in the USA or in the different countries (according to information for the year 2000[15] provided by the FCC (Federal Communication Commission) and taking into account the respective duration and invoicing as indicators of what this traffic signifies in transnationalization), shows the following:
In all cases, more calls originate in the United States than in the different countries: in the case of Dominican Republic, incoming calls from the United States are 6.5 times more that outgoing calls to the USA; in that of Costa Rica the number is 4.3, with 3.8 for Guatemala , 3.4 for Mexico, 8.4 for Salvador, 11 for Honduras, 14 for Nicaragua and 19 for Haiti. These indexes already show an important factor in the direction of the flow by economic factors, technological availability and supply.
A second element to consider is that, regardless of their origin, calls have a similar duration, with the exception of Guatemala, where calls from the USA have an average duration almost 4 times longer. This could indicate that, although the origin of the flows favours the USA, in day to day communication the need for both directions is the same and emigrants, as well as their relatives and friends, are willing to communicate as extensively as possible. This factor is important in the study, in accordance with the conceptual elements addressed.
Analysis of telephone traffic between the United States and the countries in the study[16]
The two columns on the left of this analysis table show that, in the case of payments or collection by USA carriers, the balance is more favorable to them. Only in the cases of Haiti and Honduras is the balance negative by some 63% and 17.5%, respectively. In the cases of Costa Rica, Mexico and Panama, the balance in collections favors the USA carriers by over 40%. Comparison of these indexes shows clearly that the follows of the international telephone services depend not only on the economic situation of the person calling, but also the entire infrastructure, availability and possibly the supply of this service generated by competition in the USA, which could be an argument for the competition regime, the internationalization of telecommunications services and their deregulation in the different countries. However, it cannot be definitively concluded, as we do not have all the historical and micro level figures which could provide a more definitive conclusion.
The Internet is growing as an important communication medium in domestic use and consumption; however, and in spite of its considerable impact on communication of economic, political and cultural activities, its use is not as extensive in the communities of origin, as it is outlined in some studies. This "over rating" of internet use is present in programming and strategic plans of communities and organizations, such as clubs of fellow countrymen (Clubes de Oriundos), in foundations and NGOs, as well as in official politicies and amongst some academics. In the majority of countries, these services have been introduced through the national operator, but "cibercafï¿*", "telecentros", "infocentros", "telecabinas", "telekioskos" are spaces which have also included the appropriate infrastructure required for the use of Internet, chatting, webcam, and Internet telephony (Voip).
El Salvador, for example, has established a whole network of "infocentros" in its 14 departments (provinces) as a State policy to facilitate access by different groups to the new information and communication technologies. Mexico has a very large scale government program called e-Mexico which is intended to encourage the development of ITCs, throughout the country and especially in the most remote regions with the greatest economic and infrastructure difficulties.
The Internet and Chat are more easily assimilated by young people and arise as a phenomenon for exploring and inquiring in a particular form of communication and certain virtual socialization between contemporary groups.
As to the Internet, there is much to be explored, but it is clear that, in some way, it is being promoted for intra-family communication and communication between groups and fellow countrymen, as a means of sustaining, legitimization or visibility of their "existence", a form of materializing the ideal sought by these groups and what they wish to become.
The Internet appears to offer a sense of confidence and security to fellow countrymen's clubs or hometown associations and to people who discover their identity or what is left of it. Or to those who wish to look for it through the process of "imagine yourself there, living here". Yet we found that most of these initiatives which arose from within the USA have little continuity. In spite its potential, the Internet does not seem yet an appropriate or constant communication medium between communities of origin and receivers due to access, cultural, educational and economic factors, among others.
An experience worth highlighting, because it plays an outstanding role in the process of communication and cultural ties, is that of encomenderos, also called remitters, travelers or messengers, according to the country involved.
In fact, little has been studied about the encomenderos, in spite of their being an extremely important tie in communication from and between these communities. They are mediating actors (mediadores) and, in their role, are not a cold or neutral means, but rather, on the contrary, they articulate much more in their narratives than party counterparts over the telephone. The spoken exchanges and narratives established are nurtured and renewed by these communicators. These should be studied as constant processes and as connections in the construction of symbolic systems and "imaginarios" (perceived images) for the "new identities".
According to Katharine Andrade-Eekhoff, academic from FLACSO - El Salvador and collaborator of this project, it is important to mention the encomenderos as part of the experiences which promote transnational communication: "Perhaps they are not considered communication transmitters, but they really do play a fundamental role in the process, as they transmit many things and interpretations that cannot be shared by telephone. People, mostly women, seek the services of other women to channel not only money or packages, but interpretations, indications, etc. They are a fundamental hinge in transnational relations and the part they play as communicators is very important".
Click here for opinions extracted from the dialogue process with the "key players" - Interviews and Network Document.
From an anthropological point of view, from which, at micro level, the multiple interrelations on the subject can be seen clearly, we highlight the "Aide Mï¿*oire: Visit to the transnational community of El Coyol. Survey of Remittances Sent by Immigrants in the USA"[17]. Their wealth consists of showing how transnational communities are transformed, above all outside the large cities, as little is known of these bridges, messengers, cultural ties and their economic and cultural impact.
The study of "El Coyol", in spite of being an apparently simple narrative, allows an anthropological approach to the theme of travelers' personal services, remitters or encomenderos. It offers indispensable elements to consolidate the studies of transnational communities: their cultural roots or their breakdown, the transmutation of cultural elements of the receiver society towards the originating society and vice versa; likewise, communication as a result, cause and effect of established economic relations among communities and their diasporas.
Similar cases in the Dominican Republic and El Salvador, respectively, are narrated in the following documents: Only work of Sabana Iglesia: wait for remittances from the United States[18] (Único trabajo Sabana Iglesia: Esperar remesas de Estados Unidos); and International Migration and development: The case of Santa Elena, Usulután[19] (Migracin Internacional y Desarrollo: El caso de Santa Elena. Usulután).
These three cases enable us to understand the relevance of the descriptive and analytical field studies, as well as Elias Hernandez' document.
3. Experiences that promote transnational communications
The community networks and associations formed by emigrants are experiences that promote solidarity and contact among transnational communities. Also of great importance is the case of the Hometown Associations ( clubes de oriundos), which have found an option on Internet's websites . These help them establish their identity, legitimacy and permanence as well as give them visibility in their work of establishing fellow countrymen ties. Social, cultural-civic and development activities are projected and, with the support of these websites, produce a great impact and integration effect for the originating communities and for migrants themselves.
Radio appears to have a renewed participation as one of the media, although not with the expected impact and dimension, in the communication processes among the communities and their families and diasporas, combined with other technologies such as the telephone, with the Internet and mail. Several radio stations and programs provide spaces for transnational cultural exchanges and some of them have established mechanisms for programs used to send messages through a Website, electronic mail, a letter or telephone call, which are read and exchanged during the broadcast.
For example, the Nicaraguan radio program La Hermandad (The Brotherhood) is broadcast from Monday to Friday on Radio La Primerï¿*ima and Costa Rican Radio CuC. It sends messages, greetings, news on health, work, etc., as well as announces the sending of packages, notifications of arrivals and recommendations given by Nicaraguan emigrants resident in Costa Rica to their relatives, children, mothers and friends who live in Nicaragua. Time is also used for greetings and news to be sent from Nicaragua to Costa Rica.
In a dialogue with IIan Stavans, one of the foremost researchers in Spanglish, he emphasized on this medium: "Radio has a verbal presence which exceeds by far television or even theatre, not to mention the cinema. Radio here is perhaps really the most democratic communication media -the telephone is not a communication medium, but rather an instrument- radio is impressive".
In Mexico[20], we may highlight the experience of the National Indigenous People's Institute (Instituto Nacional Indigenista, INI), with the Indigenous Cultural Radio Broadcasters System[21] (Sistema de Radiodifusoras Culturales Indigenistas) and the Mexican Radio Institute (Instituto Mexicano de la Radio, IMER), which is at present responsible for twenty stations in national territory, among them three broadcasters in the northern frontier zone: Tijuana, Ciudad Juarez and Ciudad Acua, which serve as a communication medium or link between the communities on both sides of the border. Personal and family messages are sent by telephone, letter and, in some cases, over the Internet; they are received by the station, which broadcasts them on the programs. This allows relatives, friends and communities organized in areas with great access difficulties to communicate with each other. Messages relate to the sending of remittances, dates and times for future telephone communication and celebrations, among others.
It would appear that the versatility of access to radio and the participation of listeners, its local nature or local appeal as well as its basis in oral culture, enable it to transcend frontiers and become a two-way, cross border medium. Radio integrated to other technologies is adapting itself as a communication option in some communities which - because of their access, economic and low educational level difficulties - have a tendency towards, and preference for communication based on personal messages with a focus on the use of the spoken word.
There are also experiences in printed press, with both its paper and virtual pages. Some have English versions, as many of the national newspapers recognize the need for co-nationals to be informed of events in their country.
Elias Hernandez refers, for example, to the experience of Testimonio: "a family organization of Zacatecas that promotes a local newspaper and a Website which serve as a communication and integration bridge for emigrants, their families and communities of origin. In the same state there is a radio station which does the same, with a coverage of some neighbouring states and some southern USA states".
Television is not necessarily the medium best adapted to favour transnational communities and the majority of the collaborators refer to its unwillingness or contempt for providing forms of communication among communities, which we corroborated in our search.
Click here to see News Media Review - Television Organizations and Projects.
Click here to see News Media Review - Television Productions.
Humberto Abaunza, a prominent Nicaraguan communicator, and member of the Control Panel has called attention to some of the Nicaraguan television programs: Margarita Te Voy a Contar, a talk show transmitted by Televicentro Canal 2 of Nicaragua every Saturday, which includes a segment called Puente Familiar, on which Nicaraguans with relatives in Miami, United States, send the name, address and telephone number to the program presenter, who undertakes to contact the people in Miami and record their greetings, which are later transmitted on television; Pura Vida Nica, a pre-recorded television program transmitted by the Nicaraguan News Channel, CDNN Canal 23 and on the ESTESA cable system Channel 99 every Saturday. It consists of sending a program reporter to Costa Rica to interview Nicaraguan emigrants and tell about their day to day life and living conditions.
Some NGOs and, in particular, those involved in human rights, development issues and in the discussion on the right to information and knowledge, are contributing definitively to maintaining and consolidating networks among organisms and institutions, making proposals between governments and providing assistance for migrants, promoting spaces for study and analysis of the issues, among others.
There are certain cultural and communication projects in each country, in theater, musical groups, etc., sponsored and supported by NGOs and the countries themselves, which expect to contribute to the identity and recognition of transnational actors.
Due to the migrant flow and resulting economic and political impact of remittances, States and political parties have tried to keep their groups of nationals in the USA within their regulations and policy proposals on citizenship and other fiscal issues. The cases of Mexico, El Salvador and Dominican Republic are examples of this trend.
On the Internet there are websites, both personal and about their places of origin, which are an attempt by some migrants to extend their identity and remain linked to a cultural territory, even if only virtual.
We also highlight the use of the Internet in transnational communication with the experience of the Yahoo Latin Migrant Group[22] (Grupo Migrante Latino de Yahoo). This is a virtual forum dedicated to "the situation of Latin migrants in any part of the world", which was founded on June 24, 2002. Through it, participants exchange messages on a variety of subjects related to their situation as migrants. Some of the most outstanding contents and uses are: requests for information on legal aspects relating to migration; health and education services; the search for persons who disappeared during migration processes; contacts in the United states, recounting experiences, initiatives, as well as cultural, sports, literary and social activities, etc., as well as looking for people interested in them or offering support for them; the space is also used to criticize the actions of institutions and persons whose work is related to migrants and their rights and quality of life.
Migrants in the USA
A study by C&V International[23] shows that 55% of the 35.3 million Hispanics who live in the United States have equal presence on the Web as the Anglo Saxons and more that Afro-Americans.
This population's main uses of the Internet are electronic mail (76%), for research (74%) and education (67%), to find news (60%), listen to music (54%), to chat (43%), shopping (30%), work (29%), to plan trips (28%), to keep informed about events in Latin America (27%), to send files and images (27%), to participate in group games (21%), to send instantaneous messages or participate in mailing lists (155), among others, as shown by the U.S. Hispanics are Online and Spending study.[24]
The Internet is also used by migrants for consultations on legal and welfare matters (residence, health services, studies, driving licenses and other documents), search for migrant relatives or friends, disappeared persons or people from whom they have had no news for some time; to circulate information on subjects of interest, institutions, events, news, and notifications and calls for common causes.
The studies carried out by The Tomas Rivera Policy Institute- TRPI: Talking back to Television [25] (a research on access to television technologies, television watching behaviour, including languages used and the type of programs watched) ask questions such as: do Hispanics/Latins see themselves on TV? How are they represented: positively or negatively? Do they look better on TV in English or Spanish, or in both? How do they react when the see an image on TV that is offensive to them? Other studies such as Engaging Television in English and Spanish,[26] and Latino Viewing Choices: Bilingual Television Viewers and the Language Choices They Make[27] have contributed not only to putting forward and describing television processes in representing Latinos, in their program tastes and preferences, in bilingualism and the language of reception, among others, but also to propose possible policies on them in the media. The main conclusions are that Latinos are the people who watch most television, have a dichotomy of opinion as to the positive or negative aspects of Hispanics on screen, mostly watch TV in Spanish for entertainment and news in English and consider that TV in English tends to show more violence.
In Changing Channels and Crisscrossing Cultures: A survey of Latinos on the News Media[28], Roberto Suro of the Pew Hispanic Center records the results of a study carried out by this Center to explore Latinos' preferences in the United States on sources of information, their attitudes towards the media, language preferences between English and Spanish and how these choices of media affect their opinions on matters of public interest, their relationship with their new settlement area and their identity related processes.
This study was carried out by telephone interviews. To a certain extent, the conclusions of this study point to those of the Tomás Rivera Policy Institute: Latinos are divided between English and Spanish when it comes to how they keep themselves informed. On the other hand, when it comes to the use of the medium in general, there is no specific preference and the "zapping" between channels is more fluid. Instead of audiences segmented by language, the majority keep informed in both languages. But information in Spanish decreases as time of settlement increases. Latinos not only choose the medium, but also the language for their news, and are more bilingual when relating to the media than when reading or writing. This is an important characteristic for marketing, the formation of identities and for voting behaviour. Latinos have reservations regarding the image that is projected of them in English language media. Radio is indisputably the Latinos' medium of preference.
UNIVISION[29] and TELEMUNDO[30] are the two largest Spanish language television chains in the United States. Their programs are basically for entertainment and their production relies on the Mexican networks (TELEVISA and TV Azteca), although not exclusively: soap operas, musical shows, news and current affairs, among others. However, their information policy is established and implemented directly in the USA. These two large networks also widely popular in Central American and Caribbean countries.
In countries of Central America and the Caribbean where programming targeted to the US Hispanic community is available, there seems to be a tendency to use this rather than the international broadcast.
The media also record Latinos' impact on the media; some examples for television, radio and the press:
"[Weber] recognized that the Hispanic viewing market is "complex", because Hispanics "consume television in both English and Spanish. There are also notable differences between the East coast, for example, where more international programs are preferred, and the mountainous zone or the West coast, where the strong Mexican presence is more inclined towards programs of Mexican origin".[31]
"Growth in the Hispanic press in the United States contrasts with the reduction in circulation recorded in the rest of the USA newspapers. The circulation of newspapers in Spanish or targeted to Hispanics has risen from 2.7 million in 1984 to 14.1 million in the year 2000, according to a Western Publications Research study. In contrast, the circulation of newspapers targeted to a more general United States public was down by 10 per cent in the decade of the 1990s, according to International Newspaper Marketing Association data. According to a study by the Independent Press Association, New York has 198 magazines and newspapers serving 52 ethnic groups in 36 languages, 300 per cent more than a decade ago. What is surprising is that, in this city there are the same numbers of newspapers in English and Spanish: three in each, which is another indicator of the consolidation of Latin power.
In 1970, there were 232 Hispanic newspapers with a total circulation of one million and they invoiced some 14 million dollars, according to a study by expert Kirk Whisler, which analyzed the growth of the graphic Latin media".[32]
According to the edition 2003 of the Arbitron report "La Radio Hispana Hoy. Cmo América Escucha La Radio" [33], "There are more than 13,000 radio stations transmitting throughout the country, of which over 650 are in Hispanic format. This study shows that radio is a constantly popular medium among Hispanic Americans. Radio is examined, highlighting its strength as a medium and analyzing the behaviour of the audience for eight of the main formats".
The media that cater to the Hispanic or Latino community in the USA are primarily commercial. However, their tremendous growth and profuse availability in Spanish and also in English indicate that, either consciously or unconsciously, the way they are producing and scheduling programmes is somehow reinforcing and helping this community's (or communities') claims to identity and transnationalism, in a continuous exchange with their host cultures.
There are also multi-media productions to stimulate learning, reading, basic health behaviours, and other development issues which include: a) Read and You Will Be[34], created in response to the community's wish to have an innovative program to improve children's reading levels; b) Hablemos en confianza[35] (Let's talk confidentially), a public education campaign which includes communication materials designed to encourage and strengthen dialogue between Latin, Spanish speaking parents and their children about the dangers of drugs; c) Hablamos Juntos[36] (We Speak Together), a project dedicated to improving communication between United States' health care providers and their patients with limited English speaking skills.
The above gives an idea of the impact of the Hispanic market in the USA.
Conclusions
-
As mentioned in the introduction to this summary - the complete Overview paper is available in Spanish and we recommend reading it in its complete original vervsion to get a fair sense of the scope of the enquiry.
- As to the concept of transnational communities, it is acknowledged that they are not in an unchangeable state or phase, but rather form part of a process . Their particular characteristic is that they are articulated between two communities with different cultural roots.
- There is a continuous flow of information and exchanges through different means (media channels, infrastructures, mediation processes) of both tangible and intangible objects. The communities turn to transporting artefacts and symbols of their originating culture, so that, while the people are "here", they imagine themselves to be "there", thus the concept of "transported culture" (cultura transportada). This leads to, for example, trade in nostalgic objects and celebrating catholic saints' days. But they are also organized either formally or informally; and civic associations, Hometown Associations and remittances (Morï¿*, Guarnizo y Orozco) are fundamental to understanding the exchanges and the continuous contacts.
- Social networks and social capital are factors of indisputable value; they form and, in turn, generate and reproduce social fabric, affiliations, reciprocities and identities.
- Global interactions and transnational relations generate, and are generated by processes and contexts which arise from continuous globalizing movements, all linked to capital needs, especially manual labour and the expansion of markets and consummerism.
- Communication underlies these "transnational social spaces": identity, day to day activities, infrastructure, other people's representations and stories... how do they imagine the "distant brother or sister"? What nurtures these perceived images (imaginarios)?
- Certain questions arise from the data on the use of telephony, the post, personal messages, encomenderos (remitters, travelers), the Internet, the development of knowledge and skills: what do they propose at the domestic level and in everyday life? in the expansion of the community and its outreach and in the conformation of new communities with common interests? and what happens in the communities with the new ways to access information?
- Similarly, what is significant in the use of cameras and videos, infocenters (telecenters, informatics kiosks), newspapers, radio (the cases of Mexico, Nicaragua and El Salvador) as artefacts and media of the public space? and yet, where do the domestic and private sphere fit in?
- The role of the State and its communication and telecommunication policies (promotion, direct investment, subsidies, regulations, etc.) must be understood in the new national and international contexts and formulations: UIT, globalization, transnational companies, deregulation, competition, convergence and digitalization.
- It is not easy to recognize the public policies of privately owned mass media, even if they are defined as having a social interest mandate. It is therefore necessary to approach them from the point of view of the expectations and interests of the owners, their plans as well as their social, political and economic commitment. Having said this, the official or public sector's stand point needs to be taken into account too.
- There is a need to formulate studies , follow ups and monitoring on both sides of the border and on both sides of the communication processes and exchanges. These studies should include the different variables that affect not only the decisions to send remittances or not, but also (and for the purposes of our perspective) why and how to communicate. Remittances do not happen in a vacuum and, therefore, relations of dependence and correlations with communication are triggered (f frequency, duration, etc.) Multivariable studies like Louis DeSipio's,: Sending Money Home...For Now: Remittances and Immigrant Adaptation in the United States[37] , would help to understand the different variables that affect the decisions about sending money. Of course, these can and should be applied to understand the ways and hows to communicate amongst these communities. So for example, are the time factor (eg the permanence in the USA or the return to the community of origin) or the type of family the migrant belongs to, elements that play an important role in the communication processes?. Or how does family reunification affect the communication dynamics with the community of origin?
- Women are a fundamental factor in the transnational community studies and little is known about their role in both culture and economics, but also as a signifying factor in these societies.
- It became evident during the process that field studies from an anthropological and sociological perspective are a necessity in order to gain a better understanding of the enquiry theme. It is also evident that for this purpose, the qualitative interpretation and the observation of families, groups and communities, as well as their follow-up are essential. Nevertheless, quantitative information is fundamental for the description and formulations about the conditions, flows and impact on the communities affected by transnationalism. This is the same case for plans and programs directed to these audiences.
- In addition, it is possible to explore more in depth about the media and enquire about the aspects of representation, as Jessica Retis does in her proposed doctoral thesis for the case of Spanish[38]. In this work , she offers a critical analysis of the different media's discourse including questions as: how the image of "the other" is constructed? what are the similarities and differences in the treatment of the different communities? how close do they come to, or how far are they from the images of the other collectives or groups?, what are the characteristics of the dominant public discourse and to what extent does this symbolic construction of reality affect the perception of them by non Hispanic Americans?
- In this landscaping exercise of communication and transnational communities, we compiled productions of the different media, film, video and television, among others, as well as news in the United States's printed press. This comprehensive arsenal of information, catalogued and archived, triggers reflective analysis, which must be facilitated This is an invitation to see the importance of continuing the materials' compilation, furthering the inquiry and enrich the information base and dialogue on a sustained basis.
- The networks which were conformed: the control panel, the network of expert interviewees and the larger network of 500+ people and organisations interested in transnational and communication issues can continue to feed the process and, at the same time, be nourished dynamically. This permanent expansion through the network's feedback will benefit the many interested parties we have tracked thru the landscaping, providing knowledge at different levels and in different sectors. Consequently, this can and should facilitate the study of these processes from a multi-disciplinary point of view and based on transcultural studies.
Based on the results of this landscaping study we believe that it is important to continue the research process, priorizing the following aspects that need further exploration:
- Trends noted in the role of communication in the dynamics of transnational communities.
- The role of the mass media in representations of the transnational individual and communities, perceived images, approach to different cultures, eg: "the distant relative".
- Day to day life, the private sphere, domestic aspects: use of the telephone, mail, personal messages, packages.
- The configuration of a communication space to sustain the dynamism of transnational identities and cultures.
- Further identification of innovative communication proposals.
- Trends in the formulation of communication spaces and programming for these communities.
- New research proposals and future ideas for academic queries in this area.
Finally, to quote from the Federal Communication Commission-FCC Strategic Plan 2003-2008: click here.
A new type of migration is occurring today. Past migrations involved the physical movement of people from one place to another leading to the diffusion of cultures, tools, habits, ideas, and forms of political organization. Modern migrations involve not the movement of people but fundamental shifts in technologies. These technologies change not only how people live but also how they think about what is possible. No technology more clearly reveals the face of "new possibilities" than communication technologies - radio, television, wireline, satellite, and cable - that the FCC is charged to regulate.
Back to Table of Contents.
- Basch, Linda, Glick Schiller, Nina, Szanton Blanc, Cristina. Nations Unbound: Transnational Projects, Post-Colonial Predicaments and De-Territorialized Nation-State. Langhorne, PA: Gordon and Breach. 1994.
- Doña Reveco, Cristián. Transnacionalismo y migración internacional. In: Red Internacional Migración y Desarrollo. Primer Coloquio Internacional Migración y Desarrollo: Transnacionalismo y nuevas perspectivas de integración. 23, 24 y 25 de octubre, 2003 Zacatecas, México. Debates teórico-metodológicos sobre migración y desarrollo. go
- Portes, Alejandro. Globalization from below: The rise of Transnational Communities. Transnational Communities Programme. University Of Oxford. Working Papers Series. September 1997. go
- Orozco, Manuel. Globalización y migración: El impacto de las Remesas Familiares a América Latina. Trabajo presentado para la conferencia sobre globalización organizada por la Asociación de Economistas Cubanos, Habana, Cuba 29 de enero al 2 de febrero del 2001. Partes de este trabajo aparecen en la revista Pensamiento Propio N. 12, Julio-Diciembre 2000. go
- Waller Meyers, Deborah. Migrant Remittances to Latin America: Reviewing the Literature. Inter-American Dialogue. The Tomás Rivera Policy Institute. May 1998. go
- Barbero, Jess Martín. Medios y culturas en el espacio latinoamericano. go
- Ortiz, Renato. La modernidad-mundo: Nuevos referentes para la construcción de las identidades colectivas go
- Idem. Ibid.
- Ortiz, Renato. La modernidad-mundo: Nuevos referentes para la construcción de las identidades colectivas, / Vertovec, Steven. Migrant Transnationalism and Modes of Transformation. Social Science Research Council/International Migration Review conference on Conceptual and Methodological Developments in the Study of International Migration. Princeton University, 23-25 May 2003.
- Guarnizo, Luis Eduardo. The Economics of Transnational Living. In: International Migration Review. Vol 37(3) Fall 2003, University of California, Davis. go
- For a more comprehensive account of "meaning" (significado), "mediation" (mediaciones), "perceived images" (imaginarios), see for instance Barbero, Jesús Martín. De los medios a las mediaciones. Gustavo Gili. Barcelona. 1987., Barbero, Jesús Martín. Procesos de comunicación y matrices de cultura. Gustavo Gili. México. 1988., García Canclini, Néstor. La globalización imaginada. Paids. Barcelona. 2000., García Canclini, Néstor. Consumidores y ciudadanos. Conflictos multiculturales de la globalización. Grijalbo. México. 1991.
- Andrade-Eekhoff, Katharine, Silva-Avalos, Claudia M. Globalización de la periferia: los desafíos de la migración transnacional para el desarrollo local en América Central. FLACSO, El Salvador, 2003. Working Document. go
- Morán, Quiroz, Luis Rodolfo. El impacto material y cultural de los envíos de los migrantes: la jerarquía en las contribuciones al cambio y mantenimiento del imaginario local. Red Internacional Migración y Desarrollo. go
- Vertovec, Steven. Transnational social formations: Toward conceptual cross-fertilization. Paper presented at Workshop on "Transnational Migration; Comparative Perspectives", June 30-July 1, 2001, Princeton University. Transnational Communities Programme. University Of Oxford. Working Papers Series go
- It is important to clarify that it was impossible to obtain more recent data to compare the growth trends of these flows and distribution by countries.
- On the basis of: Blake, Linda. Lande, Jim. 2000 International Telecommunication Data. Industry Analysis Division Common Carrier Bureau. Federal Communication Commission FCC. December 2001. (Filed as of October 31, 2001). go
- Ziga, Melba. Visita a la comunidad transnacional de El Coyol. Sondeo sobre envío de remesas por inmigrantes USA. Red de Desarrollo Sostenible (Honduras). Date of visit: Monday, October 8, 2001. Editor: Ricardo Puerta. Tegucigalpa, Honduras. December 2001. go / go
- Labourt, José. Único trabajo Sabana Iglesia: esperar remesas de Estados Unidos. Colegio Dominicano de Periodistas, Miami, Florida. Periodismo de ayer. 14 de agosto de 1988. go
- Lungo, Mario. Eekhoff, Kay. Migración Internacional y Desarrollo: El caso de Santa Elena. Usulután. Fundación de Desarrollo de El Salvador. 04/01/95 go
- See: Ramos, Jose Manuel. Díaz, Angel. Blending Old and New Technologies: Mexico's indigenous radio service messages. In Girard, Bruce, Edit. "The One to Watch Radio, New ICTs and Interactivity", in collaboration with The Friedrich Ebert Foundation (FES) Geneva office and FAO, Rome, 2003.
- Sistema de Radiodifusoras Culturales Indigenistas. go
- Grupo Migrante Latino de Yahoo. go
- C&V Internacional. El 55% de los Hispanos usa Internet en EE.UU.
- U.S. Hispanics are online and spending. Report conducted by Roslow Research Group in June-July, 2000 on behalf of the Association of Hispanic Ad Agencies, AHAA.
- DeSipio, Louis. Banet-Weiser, Sarah. Escalante-Dalton, Karen. Subervi-Velez, Federico. Talking Back to Television: Latinos Discuss How Television Portrays Them and the Quality of Programming Options. The Tomás Rivera Policy Institute. September 1998 go
- DeSipio, Louis. Engaging Television in English y en Espaol. The Tomás Rivera Policy Institute. March 1999. go/li>
- DeSipio, Louis. Latino Viewing Choices: Bilingual Television Viewers and the Language Choices They Make. The Tomás Rivera Policy Institute. May 2003 go/li>
- Suro, Roberto. Changing Channels and Crisscrossing Cultures: A survey of Latinos on the News Media. Pew Hispanic Center. Abril 2004 go
- Univision Communication Inc. is the main Spanish speaking communication media company in the United States. Its operations include:
-Univisin Chain, the Spanish language televisions network most watched in the United States, which reaches 97% of the Hispanic homes in the country.
-TeleFutura Chain is a general interest Spanish television chain, which reaches 77% of Hispanic homes in the United States. Unidos.
-Univision Group is the owner and operador of 23 Univision Chain television stations and one televisions station not related to Univision.
-TeleFutura Television Group, owner and operator of 29 Telefutura Chain television stations.
-Galavisin, the most important Spanish language cable television network in the country.
-Univision Radio, the main Spanish language radio group, owner and/or operator of 65 radio stations in 17 of the 25 most important Hispanic markets and of 4 stations in Puerto Rico.
-Univision Music Group, which covers Univision Records, Fonovisa Records and 50% of the share capital of the record labels of Disa Records, a company based in México, like the Fonomusic Publisher and American Musical Publishing.
-Univisin Online, the most important Spanish language Internet website in the United States, electronic address www.univision.com
Univision Communication, with main offices in Angeles, with operating networks in Miami and television stations and sales offices in the main cities throughout the United States. - Telemundo Communication Group. Inc. In: "Latinos cambian de televisin de EEUU". La Voz. Denver, Colorado. Tomo XXIX, N 22; pg. 19. May 28, 2003.
- In: "Peridiócos latinos renuevan negocio de la prensa en EU". In: El Latino. San Diego, California. Tomo XIV, N 27; pg. 11. July 12, 2001.
- Arbitron. La Radio Hispana Hoy. Cómo América Escucha La Radio. 2003 Edition
- "Lee y Serás" ("Read and You Will Be") was developed by Scholastic and the "Global Children's Publishing and Media Company", in association with El Comité Nacional Asesor Latino, la Fundacién Comunitaria Latina, el canal KDTV Univision 14, Verizon Communication and the Weston Woods Institute. go
- Hablemos en confianza is a component of SAMHSAs (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Center for Substance Abuse Prevention) Hispanic/Latino Initiative. go
- Hablamos Juntos (We Speak Together) is a project funded by the Robert Wood Jonson Foundation and administered by the Tomás Rivera Policy Institute. go
- Sending Money Home . . . For now: Remittances and Immigrant Adaptation in the United States. Louis DeSipio. University of Illinois. January 2000. go
- Retis, Jessica. Tendencias en la representación de los inmigrantes latinoamericanos en la prensa nacional española - Colombianos, ecuatorianos y argentinos... iguales o diferentes? (Trends in the representation of Latin American immigrants in the Spanish national press. Colombianos, Ecuadorians and Argentineans... the same or different?) go
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